Author: Glam World

Good Manners refers to the polite and good social behaviour. Good Manners plays a significant role in building human relationships. It lays the foundation of a stable social pattern. It implies certain values of human relationship that kept the society alive and kicking.

It is true that human life today has become speedy and hectic. Life has become too much diversified and fast. There are national and international societies that can meet within the shortest possible time, because time and space have been conquered. Naturally it is commonly thought that good manners that bound the social relations have now fallen out of use. I, however, disagree with the view.

Good manners are still needed, because manners imply stable values. They do not depend on social structures; rather all kinds of social structures depend on them.

The values like respect, loyalty, gratitude or obligation are fundamental in their character and quality. Our social and family ethics of behaviour have been determined by our respect for such values. A highly educated son bows in respect to his parents and seniors, because that is part of his social and family ethics.

Even big international dealings are based on good manners. Nations that flout good manners in such dealings are exposed. Good manners do not cost us much. It is the mark of nation’s character. If a nation cites the Bible and the Geeta, but behaves like a fraud, it becomes a target of attack for the world at large.

Good manners are an index of the degree of refinement, whether it is in individual, in a society or in a nation. The mode of observing such manners do change. The ways of being hospitable today are not the same as in our ancient days. But to be hospitable is yet a yardstick of one’s culture and character. To tell lies, to behave like a turncoat, to take undue advantage of one’s goodness have been bad and are bad even today. These are the parts or constituents of good manners. One cannot enumerate them. The norms of human behaviour change in our fast changing social life, but the status of ‘good manners’ remains constant. Good manners are closely linked to moral values. Shakespeare’s line, “The baby beats the nurse and athwart goes all decorum” is a self aeons of human existence.

I believe that good manners are very important for success in life. Man today is indeed hard pressed for time. But, it is not something that stands in his way. On the contrary it ensures a much more sound interaction, a finer ground for him to develop and consolidate. It is the very lifeblood of a healthy human relationship.

The Mesolithic culture in India corresponds to the second cultural phase of Pleistocene. Indian microlithism was first marked by Carllayle as early as 1867 from Vindhyan rock-shelter. Later on, Cockburn and Rivett Carnac discovered more microlithic sites. These earlier scholars considered these industries as ‘Proto-­Neolithic’. More systematic studies were initiated by the prehistoric Archaeologists like, Sankalia, Zeuner, Krishnaswami, Lal, Subbarao, Allchin, Malik and others.

Most of deposits have been discovered from stratified sites formed by the second phase of aggradation as found in Maharashtra, specially on Godavari river valley and its tributaries.

The middle Stone Age in India bears the following characteristics;

• The first striking feature is that microlithism is totally absent in north India. Bridget Allchin made a futile attempt to co-relate the late Sohan industry of the north with the microlithic studded Nevasian culture of central India. Typological dissimilarities in both the cultures made it an idea of ‘academic significance;
• The second characteristic feature is that the sudden disappearance pebble tools which were conspicuous in the preceding cultures;
• The third feature is that the heavier tools could not be discovered in the microlithic assemblages, excepting a few sites in Western and Central India.

The makers of microliths adopted the Levalloisian technique in the production of flake-tools while Late Acheulean technique was followed in the manufacture of core tools, though rare in occurrence. Microliths contain scrapers, points, scraper-cum-borers, and scraper-cum-points in common. Hand-axes, choppers, discoid have also been discovered in some parts of India. A type of hand axes on chart is reportedly found in the sites of Kurnool and Maharashtra.

It is now conceived that an early variety of Homo sapiens neanderthalensis migrated from the Middle-east to India with a ‘degenerated’ Mousterian culture and they were held responsible for the Mesolithic culture in India.

Langhnaj site

On the eastern bank of Sabarmati River, this important microlithic site is situated. Three other important sites in the neighborhood were also discovered.

Prof. Sankalia traced their microlithic importance at first in 1941.

Three distinct phases could be recognized:

• The first phase contains microliths, pot-sherds, graves and fossilized bones of animals;
• In the second phase, larger number of such findings could be discovered along with some polished Celts and ring-stones and fragments of pot-sherds (not properly baked);
• The third phase is composed of numerous pot-sherds, stone arrow heads, and fragments of corn-grinder. The makers of this industry probably knew the art of fire-making. These sites might be considered to be of ‘Prow-Neolithic’ stage.

Tinnevalley

Tinnevalley site of Madras was first discovered and studied by Zeuner and Allchin in the year 1956 by the side of Tambrapani River on sandy Tens. Different types of arrow heads, scrapers, curved arrow heads and borers, are common in occurrence. Zeuner tries to link this industry with the Middle Stone Age tools of central Sri Lanka where same type of Tens stratum has been found, which dates approximately 4000 B.C.

Birbhanpur site

Birbhanpur site in the district of Burdwan in West Bengal is located on Damodar river valley. B.B. Lal got himself involved with this significant microlithic site as early as 1957. Microliths of different geometric designs, points, scrapers, borers of very small size are common in this site.

This ‘Proto-Neolithic’ type of Mesolithic culture in India has striking resemblances with the typology of European Kitchen-Midden tradition, at least in the manufacturing of microliths, on one hand and Toalean stage of Indonesian stone age, on the other.

Class and caste are two phenomena of social stratification which offer many features in common not only in their origin but also in their development and function. Both are agencies of social mobility and selection in as much as they decide largely the position that a man occupies in society.

The word ‘caste’ is used in everyday life and we use it to distinguish one person from another. We say that such and such person belongs to a particular caste. In saying it we generally mean to convey that he is born of such parents or is a member of the family, said to belong to a particular caste. In this way caste is a hereditary group. In biology this word is used only for descent or heredity. But this definition is inadequate for the purposes of sociology since it requires a more comprehensive and clear definition. Caste may be defined as a hereditary endogamous group which decides the individual’s status in the social stratification and his profession etc.

Modern thinkers consider it best to enumerate the features of caste in defining it. The following are the predominating characteristics of caste.

1. Determination by birth: The membership of caste is determined by birth. A person remains the member of the caste into which he is born and his membership does not undergo any change even if changes take place in his status, occupation, education, wealth etc.

2. Rules and regulations concerning food: Each individual caste has its own laws which govern the food habits of its members. Generally there are no restrictions against fruit, milk, butter etc. but kachcha food (bread etc.) can be accepted only from a member of one’s own or of a higher caste.

3. Definite occupation: In the Hindu scriptures there is a mention of the occupation of all castes. According to Manu the functions, of the Brahmin, Kshatriya, Vaishya and Sudras were definite. The functions of the Brahmin were to study, teach, guide and perform religious rituals and to give and receive alms, that of the Kshatriya to study, perform religious rituals, give alms, punish the evil and to go to war; that of the Vaishya to study, perform religious rituals, give alms, work in agriculture, trade and animal husbandry; that of Sudra to do menial work for all the other castes. Having developed from Varna system the occupations in caste system are definite. In Hindu society even today in most cases the son of a cobbler pursues the occupation of his father; the son of a carpenter becomes a carpenter.

4. Endogamous group: The majority of persons marry only within their own caste. Brahmin, Kshatriya, Vaishya and Sudra all marry within their respective castes; Hindu community does not approve inter-caste marriage even now.

5. Rules concerning status and touchability: The various castes in the Hindu social organisation are divided into a hierarchy of ascent and descent one above the other. In this hierarchy the Brahmins have the highest and the untouchables the lowest position. The sense of superiority among the Brahmin is much exaggerated and manifests in the South.

The stringent observation of the system of untouchability has resulted in some low castes of the Hindu society being called untouchables who were consequently forbidden to make use of places of worship, cremation grounds, educational institutions, public roads and hotels etc. and were disallowed from living in the cities.

6. Authority: The last feature of caste worth considering is the existence within it of an organ wielding a varying degree of authority which compels obedience from caste members. In the high castes it is public opinion which exercises this control over its members, though in modern times this may be eluded. In most cases the authority invested in a board called the panchayat which is supposed to be composed of five members, but in fact there are many more social groups who meet whenever its decisions are needed.

Introduction

Water is the most precious gift of nature. It has no taste, no smell and no colour. It is found everywhere and the other name of it is life. We find it in tanks, ponds, wells, rivers and springs. Almost three-fourth of the earth is water. We should conserve and save water so as to protect the water environment.

Benefits of Water

Without water nothing can live. Both animals and plants need water to live. It is the source of all life on earth.

We drink water, cook in water, bathe in water and wash in water. We use water to clean our clothes, utensils, floors, etc. The farmers need water for growing crops and plants. It is also used in generating hydro-electricity.

Why we should Save Water?

We should save water on account of following reasons:

1. To ensure adequate supply of water for our future generation.
2. Though a large quantity of water can be recycled, but it consumes large amount of power, energy and money.
3. Clean water in lakes, oceans, rivers ensures healthy life of water animals.
4. Millions of people around the world are still deprived of clean and safe drinking water.

How to Save Water?

1. Stop the misuse of water.
2. Manage the usage of water properly.
3. Stop discharging pollutants without proper treatment.
4. Take efforts in maintaining the quality of water.
5. Stop wastage of water in our toilet.
6. Promote rain-water harvesting and irrigation projects.

Shahnama (also Shahnameh) is the “Book of Kings” in poetic form written by the poet Firdausi (also Ferdowsi).

In Mahmud’s court there were many scholars, poets and artists but there was none that can be compared with Firdausi, whose name has been immortalized because of the compilation of the world-famous `Shahnama’.

In this great work Firdausi has given a vivid picture of the early history of’ Persia and has written some splendid lines in praise of his master, i.e., Mahmud.

Because of this single work Firdausi is regarded as one of the most famous Persian poets and is often called “The Persian Homer.”

Poet Firdausi originally belonged to Khurasan but because of his exceptional poetic qualities Mahmud kept him in his court in order to honour his exceptional qualities.

It is said that Mahmud had promised to pay him one gold Mohar for every verse of Shahnama but when the whole book was ready Mahmud offered him 60,000 silver coins for the same number of verses, instead of paying 60,000 gold Mohars. Firdausi was naturally enraged to see all that naked breach of trust. He returned without accepting anything and died broken hearted, but not before he had added some defamatory lines against Mahmud at the end of his Shahnama.

It is said that when Mahmud came to know of these defamatory verses against him he realized his own mistake and at once dispatched 60,000 gold Mohars to be paid to Firdausi at his native town (which is now called Meshed). But the Persian poet was not destined to receive them. It is really tragic that Firdausi died before the reward reached him.

Fire Making

Fire may be considered as one of the chief agents of human cultural progress. Indeed, no single material trait other than fire could lift man above the level of other animals. In the remote prehistoric past, human being commanded the animal world as he could discover and master fire. In those days, he used to live in the caves and dense forest quite at the mercy of nature. He could then express his supremacy in the animal world by the invention of fire and lithic tools. His physical handicap was thus adjusted. His inventive brain helped him immensely during those days of “intensified struggle for existence.” In the later stages of Mesolithic and Neolithic cultural phases, other inventions and discoveries were subsequently made which pushed the human civilization further.

It was during the early Paleolithic stage, man discovered fire but could not master it. The controlled use of fire towards human benefit came much later, probably during the middle or upper Paleolithic cultural stages.

The tribals of India and abroad, have their indigenous way of fire preservation. They need not have to light fire everyday which they cannot afford. In the case of emergency, they may borrow it from the neighbours. They preserve fire by putting pieces of charcoal or dried bushes upon their hearths. In the early morning, they blow wooden pipes to lit fire in their hearths. They may even push some dried bushes and wooden pieces into the hearths to gain immediate flame.

Methods of Fire Making

There are different methods to produce fire which is being described below:

1. Fire-drill

A universal and fundamental use of wood is in the fire-making. It is widely used as a fire starter around the world. The drills are ordinarily nothing but wooden rods or tubes rotated between the hands or by mechanical means. The ancient Greeks, the Romans, and the Egyptians used to produce fire by this method. The south Indian priests still now try this method to produce fire for sacred performances.

2. Fire-saw

The implement consists of a grooved board lying on the ground and a blunt stick which is pushed back and forth with vigorous pressure until friction-generated heat kindles fire-a method concentrated primarily in Polynesia. In Indonesia, the fire-saw, a variant form, is preferred. In this method, piece of split bamboo is sawed so rapidly that the dust ignites. In Malay, Australia, Philippines, and Burma and in India, this technique of fire-making is performed by the primitives.

3. Bow-drill

The trick of the bow-drill is to wind the bow-string once around the drill, and by holding the top of the drill in a hand socket, the fire-producers saw back and forth with the bow.

4. Pump-drill

A clever refinement of bow-drill finds expression in pump-drill. In Madagascar, it is known as the traditional way of fire-making. The Melanesians and the Polynesians know this art of fire-making.

5. Lenses

If sun rays are allowed to fall on paper or dried grass or on some such objects through a bi-convex lens, fire can be produced. It is practiced by the people of contemporary societies.

6. Fire-piston

The fire-piston is the device for lighting with the heat engendered by the sudden compression of fire. This method of fire-making must have been a by-product of something else, or an accidental invention.

7. Ploughing

It is a variant of ‘fire-saw’. If one pushes a stick to-and-fro on flat piece of wood so as to produce a groove, then heat may be generated which ultimately produces fire.

Besides these, modern safety matches are very common among the peoples, modern and primitive, in the global context. Probably this discovery of matches was made in the 19th century. The chemicals like sulphur and potassium chlorate dipped in sulphuric acid, are allowed to stick at one end a small wooden split, may give rise to flame in friction. Later on, phosphorus replaces the earlier chemicals.

Durgabai Deshmukh played an important role in our struggle for independence.

Among the southern states, Andhra had the unique distinction of contributing the largest contingent of women Satyagrahis who, unmindful of the hardships, entered the prisons. In the non-cooperation movement of 1922, a young girl of twelve years offered satyagraha at Kakinada. This young girl, Durgabai, afterwards exhibited her dynamic abilities by founding a unique organization — the Andhra Mahila Sabha — which is regarded as the foremost among the women’s welfare and educational institutions of entire South India.

Durgabai, familiar to the rest of the country as Durgabai Deshmukh was born in Rajahmundry on 15 July 1909. As noted earlier she participated in the Non-Co-operation Movement when she was hardly twelve years of age. After the suspension of the Non Co-operation Movement, she propagated the ideals of Gandhiji in the villages around Rajahmundry and Kakinada, by establishing schools to give training to women in spinning and weaving.

Along with Andhra Kesari T. Prakasam she participated in the Salt Satyagraha movement in Madras city in May 1930. She was imprisoned in 1930 and again in 1932. In spite of her active participation in the national struggle Durgabai found time to take the M.A. and B.L. degrees. From 1935 till her death she devoted her entire energy to the welfare of women and children.

In 1936 she established Andhra Mahila Sabha mainly, to coach young Telugu girls of Madras city to appear for the Matriculation examination of the Banaras Hindu University. From such a humble beginning Andhra Mahila Sabha became within a decade a great institution of education and social welfare in the city of Madras. She had the unique capacity to get funds for the institution from both the rich and the poor alike. Andhra Mahila Sabha trained women in various activities like nursing, journalism, and teaching. Durgabai founded and edited a monthly journal in Telugu called Andhra Mahila. The activities of Andhra Mahila Sabha attracted the attention of Pandit Nehru who wanted to utilize the services of Durgabai at the national level.

At the national level Durgabai’s services were utilized fully. She was the Chairwoman of a number of central organizations like, Central Social Welfare Board, National Council for Women’s Education and National Committee on girls’ and women’s education. She was a Member of Parlia­ment and Planning Commission. She was also associated with the Andhra Educational Society, New Delhi.

After the formation of Andhra Pradesh, Andhra Mahila Sabha extended its activities to Hyderabad city. At Hyderabad, Andhra Mahila Sabha, besides running a number of educational institutions including a college, opened many welfare institutions for women and children.

Durgabai was awarded the fourth Nehru Literary Award in 1971 for her outstanding contribution to the promotion of literacy in India. In 1975 she was awarded ‘Padma Vibhushan.’

Durgabai Deshmukh died on 9th May, 1981. In her death the country has lost one of the most dynamic women of the country.

Right from the days of the Indus Valley Civilisation, the Mother Goddess is worshipped in India as the force behind productivity.

But during the period between the Rig-Vedic age till the beginning of the Gupta age, aristocrats were not in favour of worshipping the Mother Goddess.

She was popular among pre-Aryan tribals. She stood for Mother Earth, the giver of life and crops, in the agrarian society.

Later, under the Brahmanic influence, the Mother Goddess came to be known as Shakti, Chandi, Gouri, Chamunda, Parvati, Kali and Durga. In Hinduism, Shaktism was very popular. Those who worshipped Sakti were called Saktas.

Alexander Invasion of India

The Indian invasion of Alexander covered only a brief period of about two years. But it had its direct and indirect effects, permanent or temporary. These effects were political, commercial and cultural.

As an invasion, it was like a passing episode without leaving any lasting impression on the Indian mind. It was just a military adventure of a great soldier, and passed off like a brief storm.

The military expedition as such, thus came and passed like an evil spectacle. Its impact, however, could be marked in some other ways as outlined below.

Political Impact

Alexander’s invasion of India carried both a political lesson and a political result. The lesson was that divided into small kingdoms, republics and tribal units, the North-West India suffered badly from hands of the foreign invaders. Unity and not the disunity became the need of the time. The presence of small Macedonian garrisons in the Indus valley was like a reminder of India’s lack of political unity for some time at least.

The political result of the invasion was noteworthy. Alexander destroyed the power of the many existing states and wiped out the independent existence of some of them. When soon after his departure, the process of building a powerful Indian empire began, the states of the North-West were easily conquered and they formed a part of that empire. Alexander, in fact, made the work of Chandragupta Maurya simpler, and paved the path for his imperial power in the Greek invaded areas.

Alexander did not fight with the real political power of India which was represented by the Nanda Empire. He fought with much smaller powers and won victory. Even then, a small king like Porus showed to him the courage of the Indian side. The political myth created by the Greek writers that the Western army was superior to that of the Indian proved meaningless when Chandragupta Maurya not only drove out the Greeks from the Indian soil, but also defeated the most powerful Greek ruler after Alexander, Seleucos Nikator, and forced him to surrender a large part of his territory. Politically, thus, India raised as a mighty power of Asia soon after the invasion of Alexander the Great.

Commercial Impact

Alexander’s invasion opened up the land routes between the Greek world in the West and the Indian sub-continent. It is said that the Greek hero opened as many as five different lines of communication between India and the West during the course of his campaigns. Of those, four routes were on land, and one by sea. His voyages and campaigns enlarged the geographical horizon of both the western and eastern peoples. As a result, overland trade and maritime commerce began to develop between India and the West. After the destruction of the Persian Empire over which the Greeks began to rule, the lines of contact between India and the Western Asia and through that with Europe became more effective and direct.

The land routes to the West ran mainly through Kabul, the Mulla Pass of Baluchistan and Gedrosia. In his conquered territories, Alexander founded cities, military posts, and Greek settlements. Those laces developed into centers of trade in course of time, and many of them survived for a long time.

The geographical separation between the West and East was thus reduced to a large extent in the wake of Alexander’s invasion.

Cultural Impact

Culture knows no racial or geographical frontiers. When used peoples meet each other even in hostility, their contact brings about mutual understanding of cultural values. The Greek invasion of India provided scope for such an exchange.

India was rich in religion and philosophy at the time of the Greek invasion. The Greeks also were the pioneers of Western civilisation with a rich philosophy of their own. The historians, scholars and writers who came with Alexander closely observed the Indian philosophical systems and noted them in their descriptions. Alexander himself was curious to hear and know about some of the most difficult systems of Indian ascetics’ and philosophers. The description left by the Greek writers caused much curiosity in the advanced Greek minds of that time and of later periods. The Hindu and the Buddhist religious faiths and philosophies had an impact of the Greek world of philosophy following Alexander’s time.

The Indians, on their part are supposed to have been impressed by the Greek coinage. King Saubhuti, whom the Greeks called Sophytes, struck coins in imitation of the Greek coins. Similarly, the Indians came to know of the Greek astronomy. And later on, they came to appreciate the Hellenistic art. Long after Alexander, this influence came to its admirable form in shape of the Gandhara School of Art. The images of Buddha, under this art, showed a remarkable mixture of the Greek and the Indian art of image making. Of course, this art perfected itself at the time of Emperor Kanishka who brought sculptors from the Greek settle­ments of Bactria for the work, and who were far remote from the days of Alexander the Great.